Hoe does the concept of Europeanisation seek to explain policy Essay

Hoe does the concept of Europeanisation seek to explain policy adaptation in EU member staes - Essay Example However, the European Union is not just a ‘consortium’ of countries that discuss in common on certain issues. It is mainly a political, financial and social co-operation1 which provides its members with a series of rights but also of obligations which guarantee their financial and political strength but also the Union’s existence and operation. Current paper examines the phenomenon of Europeanisation as can observed in general but particularly in Britain, Germany2 and France (three of the most important and powerful members of EU). The particular policies of these countries regarding the application of EU’s rules in their internal environment are also examined in order to formulate an integrate result of the national policies of the above states compared to the strategies required by the European Union in order for its policies to be successfully applied in all member states. The definition of europeanisation presents a lot of differences in the literature. This fact can be explained by the existence of significant theoretical differentiations between the scientific researchers that have worked on this area. In this context, according to Massimiliano (2000), the process of europeanisation has been explained by the political scientists at least in four different ways: a) As a process of centre-building, of state-building, which implies a centralisation of powers and functions at supranational level (Haas 1958) or anyway a â€Å"political institutionalisation at European level† (Caporaso, Jupille 1998), b) As a process which serves for the already existing national states to co-ordinate policies (Hoffmann 1966; Moravcisik 1998), c) as a process which adds a new level of decision making without deleting the old ones, but contributing to a re-definition of the relations between different level of decision and between different kinds of actors (Sharpfà ¢â‚¬â„¢s â€Å"multilevel polity†, 1994), or d) as a process of domestic changing in

ACADEMIC CULTURE & VALUES Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

ACADEMIC CULTURE & VALUES - Essay Example In as much as it remains a common language among various countries English has various advantages and disadvantages. English taking on the role of world language has various advantages, to start with is the uniformity is accords to reference. It is language, which maintains its originality due to stringent rules guiding its usage ( Ammon 2003, p 63). Recently the Australia based organizations acquired it to facilitate free trade among the 13 member countries. English further ensures a free communication among member countries across borders, as it remains a simple language to learn and consequently, a global language known by many people. Technological advancements in the current world get help from English as a world language. Computer advancement for instance has programme software’s in English as other languages seem are difficult to understand and learn. This makes English the only language, which can be beneficial to the whole world and accepted by every country. In as much as English is not a common language for everybody using the internet it has remained a common and unifying language to all people. Further English has an advantage of taking the worlds language from the context that all world media fraternities apart from internet use English. This includes world television networks including CNN and Aljazira. In addition, other field such as medication prints instructions through English as well as giving medication guidelines using English. In the field of business, English still forms a key communication medium at air traffic controls including airports and airplanes. This makes English an international language with many advantages as it forms a common medium of communication (Kirkpatrick 2007, p 16). Apart from facilitating communication around the world, English has done a lot of harm to the world. To start with is the fact that it has made other languages disappear and

The U.S. Airline Industry Essay Example for Free

The U.S. Airline Industry Essay The U.S. airline industry provides a unique service to its customers. It transports people and goods with efficiency and convenience which is not achieved by any other service. The purpose of this article is to collect data on the U.S. airline industry and analyze the state of the industry today. Data came from sources such as the Federal Aviation Administration, scholarly articles, and websites such as dallas.culturemap.com and airwise.com. Tools used to analyze the data include P. E.S.T., and Porter’s five forces. The analysis also focuses on the industries’ drivers of change and its key survival factors. Key Survival Factors Include Locations that an airline services – The servicing of particular markets is essential in the nature of the airline industry. Airlines need to offer routes between markets that are desired by customers. Cost structure of an airline’s operations – The costs of operations for an airline are a limit to how low airfares can be. Costs include maintenance, fuel, labor, fees and lease payments for operating in airports. Those airlines that are able to control costs can attract customers with lower fares and can improve overall profitability. (Site this web article here http://dallas.culturemap.com/news/travel/05-19-14-southwest-airlines-virgin-america-new-low-fares/) An airlines’ workforce and its interaction with customers – A Pleasant workforce can encourage repeat business. An unhappy workforce can drive customers away to rivals. Reliability of Service – An airline with a reputation for reliable service has a positive image among customers, which can lead to repeat business. Issues with reliability include mishandled baggage, the on-time arrival of flights, overbooking flights, and passenger complaints. Those airlines that are able to control these elements provide better service to the customer. Drivers of Industry Change Consolidations and Alliances – Many airlines operating in the U.S. have recently consolidated due to high competition and improper cost structures. These newly consolidated firms are also establishing alliances with international carriers which enable them to expand their market participation strategies. Globalization – Growth potential in the global  travel market has led to a drive for globalization in the airline industry. U.S. airlines are lobbying for â€Å"open skies† treaties between the U.S. and other nations. The U.S has signed more than 60 open skies treaties with nations around the globe. Low-cost Competition – The rise of the low-cost carriers has forced a change in the competitive environment of the airline industry. Southwest, JetBlue, People Express and Airtran operate off of low-cost strategies that allow them to offer lower airfares. These low fares put pressure on the industry and force rivals to lower their costs to stay competitive. (http://www.nbcnews.com/business/travel/new-low-cost-airline-peoplexpress-tickets-go-sale-n122971) (P.E.S.T.) Political, Economic, Social, and Technological forces that impact the industry. Political Security Regulations from FAA War on Terrorism led to stricter guidelines Customer Protection Regulations – must show fees (http://www.npr.org/2014/05/31/317429334/regulators-and-airlines-fight-over-fares-fees-and-fairness) Economic High operating costs Airlines merging Fuel Costs are huge Less people traveling due to expense Very high fixed cost Impact of holiday travel Cancellation fees/checked bag cost Social Security – Is it safe to fly? Crashes/failure Customer service (friendliness, flight attendant/pilot being funny) Technological Business changes (using Skype instead of traveling) Buying tickets online/cancel online Porter’s Five Forces Model is one way to analyze the environment in which airline companies operate. This model shows the major forces that form the industry: threat of new entrants, bargaining power of buyers, threat of substitutes, bargaining power of suppliers, and competitors. Threat of new entrants is relatively high in the airline industry. It seems like it would be hard to enter the airline industry due to the large amount of fixed costs however lending has made it not only possible but fairly simple. New entrants will have to endure years of little or no profit until a strong customer base is established though. Meanwhile existing companies will be able to lower prices and take losses against their capital reserves just to drive a new competitor out of business. Further, consumers prefer well-known brands mainly due to safety concerns. Lastly, stringent licensing requirements and heavy regulations by organizations such as the Federal Aviation Administration and the Department of Transportation require significant knowledge base and time investment on the part of the new entrant. Bargaining power of buyers is also relatively low in the airline industry. Two main groups of buyers exist: individual buyers purchasing tickets for personal or business travel, and travel agencies and/or online portals that work as a â€Å"middle man† between the airline companies and individual buyers. There is definitively a large amount of buyers compared to the number of airlines; therefore, loss of one customer does not strongly affect the bottom line of a given airline. Typically, each airline has a niche. Some airlines focus on cost, while others focus on having the best amenities, etc. Although switching costs are low for buyers, they tend to remain within a niche and purchase tickets based on their price vs. amenities preferences. Threat of substitutes is medium in the airline industry. Consumers can choose other forms of transportation such as a car, bus, train, or boat to get to their destination. However, there is a cost to this switch, mainly time. For long distance travel, airlines usually exceed all other forms of transportation when it comes to cost and convenience. Nevertheless, there is one important development that should be noted – technological advances are allowing business people to telecommute, this significantly cuts down on required business travel. Bargaining power of the suppliers presents a medium threat in the airline industry. Major suppliers include the airplane manufacturers, aircraft leasing companies,  fuel companies and labor unions. Although airline companies cannot easily switch suppliers, most firms have long term contracts with their suppliers. On the other hand, there are very few suppliers in the airline industry because of the amount of money and expertise required. Airlines represent the main source of income for these suppliers so airline’s business is extremely important to them. Rivalry among existing players is very strong in the airline industry. The first reason is the fact that the airline industry is currently stagnant; the number of competitors remains more or less the same and the industry does not have overcapacity. The fixed costs are extremely high and it is hard for an airline firm to leave the industry because of the long term debt obligations. The rivalry is reduced by the brand identities of different airlines. Some are known for exceptional amenities, others for low prices. The market seems to be equally divided as each company maintains its own niche in the market. Highly competitive industries such as the airline industry typically see low rates of return due to the fact that they competition drives down prices. Couple this with the high amount of government regulation in the airline industry and the investor may be weary of investing in the industry. However, the next five years look promising for the U.S. airline industry due to the fact that many of the participant firms will be newly consolidated and have influence in markets outside of the U.S. as well as those inside.

Stakeholder management in tourism and hospitality

Stakeholder management in tourism and hospitality 2. Structure of the tourism and hospitality industry and role of stakeholders: (Burcu Ozgur, 2008) The stakeholders’ needs and demands are understood and responded to by organizations, based on the concept of stakeholder management. According to (Svendsen, 1998), the main role of stakeholder management is to protect the organization from the damaging impacts of the activities of the stakeholder. Some techniques like consultation, issue analysis, strategic communications, and formal contracts or agreements should be utilized by the organization. (Huber, Scharioth, Pallas, 2004), explained that organizations strive to gain the trust of the main stakeholders, who have a greater influence on them and with whom they have constructive interactions. For any organization, financial success is important and they will use any tools at the expense of the environment, members of staff, and/or local communities. This careless attitude will result in losses and damages in relationships with the stakeholders. The two significant variables for the decision on stakeholders by an organization are a) their possibility of threatening an organization and, b) their possibility of cooperating with an organization. The two relationship variables are cooperative potential and competitive threat. These two relationship variables reflect the capacity of stakeholders’ for cooperation and threat in a specific matter facing the organization. (Lim, Ahn, Lee, 2005), stated that companies can adopt four possible categories for stakeholder management: a) reactive, b) defensive, c) accommodative, and d) proactive. Depending on the stakeholder’s potential for threat and cooperation, companies decide their postures and strategies for stakeholder management such as a) leading, b) collaborating, c) involving, d) defending, e) educating, and f) monitoring. (Clarkson Centre for Business Ethics, 1999), developed a list of the essential principles of stakeholder management. The first principle highlights the requirement of identifying stakeholders’ legitimate interests, which will be used in decision making processes by an organization. The second principle refers to the need for communication between the organization and its stakeholders. The engagement with the stakeholder is required to reduce conflicts. The third principle reflects the idea that there could be differences with the involvement of stakeholders in the organization. While the organization may have official relationships with few of stakeholders, other stakeholders are approached in unofficial ways either through direct contact, press release or advertising. The fourth principle underlines the significance of balancing risks and rewards among various stakeholders impartially and observes the need of distributing benefits to all parties. The fifth principle highlights the need for cooperation with public and/or private entities with the sole objective to reduce risks related to corporate practices. The sixth principle relates the aspect of respecting human rights which are threatened by the present and future activities in an organization. The last principle brings the attention of managers to identify their own difference of interests to normalize stakeholder relationships in order to increase credibility of organization. 3. Strategic Stakeholder Management: Tourism’s Perspective One of the important generators of revenue is the Tourism sector which is also a job generating sector and serves as a medium of development. Tourism sector has gained great importance as it generates economic development and prosperity even in places which would not be used as an economic source. The industry’s coordinated actions; highly fragmented and diverse structure makes it special and successful. The tourism sector could be contemplated as a system. As (Mill Alastair, 2002) mentioned, there are many reasons to view tourism as a system. Some of them are: Interdependency in tourism i.e., all organizations in this sector are interrelated parts and work together to achieve common goals. Dynamic and constantly changing characteristics i.e. it be affected by outer influences such as political uncertainty, war, international relations, terrorism, technological developments, epidemics, and changes in demographic conditions. Complex sector with different types of activities and organizations. Intense competitiveness of tourism i.e. all kinds of tourism organizations have to vie with each other globally. Need for responsiveness. Tourism is a sector where many elements which are independent and any change in one element can cause changes in other parts. Therefore, it’s important to maintain harmony of all parts. The stakeholder management practices should be utilized to create the harmony and forge strong relationships between the tourism organizations and their stakeholders. 4. Environmental trends in the global tourism industry: (Dwyer, Deborah, Nina, Carolina, Noel, 2008) Tourism is closely connected to the environment. The two main reasons for determining the viability and attractiveness of an area as a tourist destination is the natural environment and climate conditions (Dwyer Kim, 2003). The developments for tourism are based on features such as gaining easy access for visitors to natural or manmade environments. The concerns of stakeholders of tourism which include researchers has always centered on the ways tourism development may offer opportunities for managing environmentally sensitive areas and the conservation of unique environments. (United Nations Environment Programme ((UNEP), 2002), reported that the focus is on tourism where it can help in reducing environmental pollution and usage of resources. The main environmental trends include change of climate, depletion of natural resources and loss of biodiversity: Change of Climate: The increase in release of concentrations of greenhouse gases influences the change of climate and global warming. Climate change is a global occurrence and its major effects are felt at the local and regional scale. Effects of climate change and warming trends include: rise in sea-level, changes to ocean currents, melting of glacial and polar ice, losing of snow cover, high heat index and high diurnal temperatures, and changes to precipitation patterns (IPCC, 2007). Climate changes are influential in determining the destinations preferred by tourists and also on the profitability of the industry through increase in costs of energy use. Policies to lessen emission of greenhouse gas will invariably affect the operator costs and destination competitiveness particularly for longer destinations (Dwyer Forsyth, 2008). Depletion of natural resource: The increasing paucity of natural resources required to steer industrial development will give rise to a number of effects. The factors affecting the availability of natural resources like food production, water and energy, are increase in population and economic development. The result of ‘peaking’ in oil production, commonly known as ‘Peak Oil’, will increase the expenses of fossil fuel based energy sources. ‘Peak Oil’ refers to the maximum rate, i.e. ‘peak’ of production of world oil to a point beyond which it goes to permanent decline. The decline in production of oil along with increase in demand will result in increase of fuel costs. Consequently, the new ‘carbon economy’ is set to push the want for energy efficiency and investment in renewable forms of energy. In future, half of the world’s population will face shortage of water due to scarcity of water resources. The arable land and native bush land will diminish extensive agriculture and broad-scale land clearing due to demands for higher food production. Loss of bio diversity: (United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2003), reported that the main danger to loss of species biodiversity is habitat loss. Loss of biodiversity is expected to substantially affect those destinations that highlight nature based or eco tourism. Analyzing Marketing Opportunities Challenges: The Macro-environment (Amy, Eliza, Cynthia, 2009) The major macro-environmental forces recognize and discuss the affect the ability of hospitality industry to market its offerings. All organizations in the hospitality industry function in a constantly changing macro-environment, and thus giving prospect for marketers to conduct business or pose threats to the companies. The environmental changes have to be monitored closed before marketing strategies are considered by companies. The hospitality marketers must analyze and observe the six major forces (demographic, economic, political/legal, social/cultural, technological and natural/ecological), as shown below: Figure 1: Macro-Environmental Forces Table 1: Macro-environmental Forces 5. Market research Importance of Psychographic Research (Yvette Felix, 2004) (Wells, 1975), defined Psychographic research as â€Å"quantitative research intended to place consumers on psychological dimensions.† According to (Gladwell, 1990), this type of research â€Å"analyzes consumer’s attitudes, perceptions, needs, interests, opinions, activities, and daily lifestyle.† (Shih, 1986), recognized that â€Å"Psychographics is very meaningful and relevant† and (Abbey, 1979) stated that â€Å"it’s very important means to provide additional information beyond the demographic characteristics.† Abbey suggested that psychographic variables produce major differences between the groups of consumers, and these differences were bigger than the differences produced by the demographic profiles. (Mayo, 1975), stated that psychographics are useful than demographics in explaining consumers because they differentiate better between them (Ryel Grasse, 1991). The market segmentation has found a valuable means in Psychographics. (Gladwell, 1990), observed that psychographic characteristics of tourists have to be examined thoroughly by marketer if their destinations need to be marketed successfully to tourist. Psychographic variables are helpful in recognizing various types of tourists, distinguishing their segments and differentiating between the segments (Schewe Calantone, 1978). Psychographic measures provide complete profiles of tourists and give the marketers a clear picture of the tourists they are attracting. Psychographics cannot be independent even though psychographics has a comparative advantage over demographics, (Schewe Calantone, 1978). In order to understand a consumer market better, marketers should use psychographic data along with other criteria such as demographic, geographic, or behaviorist. Psychographic data needs to be incorporated in its research studies of the tourism and hospitality industry to benefit from the k nowledge of its customers. The data was collected through a qualitative research method. Qualitative methods offer varied empirical processes intended to describe and interpret the experiences of participants in a context specific setting. Data was collected from 30 representatives via semi-structured, in-depth interviews. Local residents, governmental, non-governmental and academic stakeholders were considered in order to acquire the opinion locally, regionally and nationally regarding the implementing sustainable tourism development. The concept of sustainable tourism development became important due to fact that local residents are involved in tourism planning and decision-making. (Jackson, 2000). A sampling strategy was arrived at to ensure residents participating were ambassadors of a cross-section of the community. The sampled residents included those who resided in the tourism/non-tourism zone and were directly/indirectly involved with and/or affected by tourism activities. Many of the interviewed residents and who were involved in the industry were engaged as local guides or owners of home stay lodging and resorts, or souvenir and food catering shops. In-depth interviews saw participation of 20 local residents. Convenience sampling constituted a technique of non probability that attempts to get a sample of convenient elements which is less expensive and less time-consuming when compared with other sampling techniques (Malhotra, 2004). Governmental institutions had an essential part in sustainable tourism development initiatives. Therefore, they participated in the study and to aid in establishing a swell of other respondents. This was considered the most appropriate method, as the researcher was not well informed about the formal or informal ‘network connections’ locally (Jennings, 2001). The researcher chose a few respondents involved decision making for the destination i.e. Town Council, Sub-District Administration Organization. Other relevant stakeholders interviewed were the local tourist office, a non-governmental organization and academics. Totally 10 governmental respondents were interviewed. Interview questions related to the sustainable tourism development concept and stakeholders were developed. These questions were directed to five local residents in August 2012. The interviews led to alterations in: (1) interview time and how respondents were approached, and (2) the interview questions usi ng simpler and non-technical terminology. Then, in-depth interviews were conducted in September 2012. In order to gain further insights and data, the questions were open ended. The interviews were recorded, transcribed and organized based on the interview questions.

Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe Essay -- Things Fall Apart Chinua A

Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe is a story about personal beliefs and customs, and also a story about conflict. There is struggle between family, culture, and the religion of the Ibo, which is all brought on by a difference in personal beliefs and customs of the Igbo and the British. There are also strong opinions of the main character, Okonkwo. We are then introduced to the views of his village, Umuofia. We see how things fall apart when these beliefs and customs are confronted by those of the white missionaries.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The authors full name is, Albert Chinualumogu Achebe also known as Chinua, he was born on November 16, 1930 in Ogidi, Nigeria. He is a product of both native and European cultures. This has a great effect on the telling of the story. He attended Government College in Umuahia from 1944 to 1947 and University College in Ibadan from 1948 to 1953. He then received a B.A. from London University in 1953 and studied broadcasting at the British Broadcasting Corp. in London in 1956. He joined the Biafran Ministry of Information and represented Biafra as a diplomat. Since then, he has taught variously at the universities of Nigeria, Massachusetts, and Connecticut.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Achebe wrote Things Fall Apart partly in response to what he saw as inaccurate characterizations of Africa and Africans by British authors. The book was published in 1958, he was 28 years old at the time. It was very successful and has sold over 2,000,000 copies, and has been translated into thirty languages. He has written a total of fifteen different books in his lifetime. He became a political activist in the late 1960's early 1970's.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Thirty years ago Chinua Achebe was one of the founders of this new style of literature, and over the years many critics have come to consider him the finest of the Nigerian novelists. His achievement, however, has not been limited to his continent. He is considered by many to be one of the best novelists now writing in the English language. In recent decades he has held a succession of teaching posts, notably a professorship at Bard College in Annandale-on-Hudson, N.Y.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Thing Fall Apart, we see a conflict early in the story between Okonkwo and his father, Unoka. "Okonkwo was ruled by one passion - to hate everything that his father Unoka had loved. One of those things was gentleness a... ...y had let the other messenger escape. They had broken into tumult instead of action" (Achebe 205). Everything he lived for and believed in was going to be taken away by the white men. They had control over everything. He did not want to see that happen so he took his own life. Yet, this is ironic because, in doing so, he was committing an act which was considered one of the worst actions a member could do in the Ibo society. Throughout the story we see how strong Okonkwo's personal beliefs were and how much they meant to him. Beliefs, both personal and those of the society someone is born into, play a major role in their life. This story is an example of what happens when those beliefs are taken away and others are forced upon a person. Everyone needs to believe in something, and things fall apart when they no longer can.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When he tells the story with an understanding and personal experiences in both cultures. He does not portray the African culture and their beliefs as barbaric. He simply tells it as it is, and how things happened. It is the same with the white men. Chinua Achebe realized that neither of the cultures were bad, but they simply had a difference in beliefs.

Physics of Volcanoes :: physics volcano volcanic eruption

Volcanoes are one of natures most interesting and dangerous phenomenons. The way volcanoes operate can be understood, on a basic level, by just some simple physics and chemistry, this paper will investigate and explain some of the basic physics that govern the behavior of volcanoes. Magma is composed of three main components * viscous silicate melt * crystals * volatiles (gases) The way that these three components interact is one of the main focuses of petrologists and volcanologists. Also, the way that these components interact is govered by some of the basic laws of physics. Viscosity In layman's terms viscosity is a fluids resistance to flow and is important in many volcanic processes. Viscosity is defined as the internal resistance to flow by a substance when a shear stress is applied. Many factors affect a magma's viscosity. Temperature is one of them, as a with all fluids as a the temperature increases the viscosity also increases. This example can be seen when examining a rhyolitic melt, when the temperature decreases from 1300Â °C to 600Â °C the viscosity increases by more than eight orders of magnitude. The silica content and the water content also affect a magmas viscosity. The more silica is in a magma the more viscous the magma will be due to the strong silica-oxygen bonds. When water is added to a magma it has the ability to break the silica-oxygen bonds and therfore, the viscosity decreases. Rheology Rheology is the study of how materials flow and it is very important when examining volcanogenic processes. Two main types of flows can be defined: laminar and turbulent. Laminar flow occurs when the motion of the particles of fluid is very orderly with all particles moving in straight lines parallel to the walls. Turbulent flow occurs when the streamlines or flow patterns of a fluid are disorganized and there is an exchange of fluid between these areas. The Reynolds number (Re) can be calculated to determine whether a fluid is turbulent or laminar. When the Reynolds number is less than 10 .... it is considered laminar, when it is greater than 100 it is considered turbulent. The areas in between are defined as transitional and can go either way. Rheology and viscosity are imporatnat to volcanologists because it will determine if Magma Chambers will convect and overturn. When the Rayleigh's and Reynolds numbers are high enough it is possible for these chambers to over turn which can lead to volcanic eruptions.

Psychological Perspective on Assisted Suicide

One of the most hotly debated topics going on now is the one concerning the ethics of assisted suicide and euthanasia. Nowadays with all the progress that the medical profession has gained, people who are terminally ill have more options, and there have been continued efforts to give them the â€Å"right to die† when they choose this option. I was interested in researching this topic because I think the debate has a lot to do with psychology, which I am very interested in. This dilemna has been hotly debated and I was open to seeing how this movement was progressing. Basically, in the beginning I was a proponent on this issue, and believed people should not be denied their wishes when they wanted to end their pain. However, I was open to learning more about the opposite stance and what the reasons for opposition were. It always seemed unusual to me that suicide was not illegal, but yet it was illegal to assist in one even with a consenting party. I wondered how this could be, and how people could deny people this right in unending pain. There never seems to be a prosecution of doctors who participate in these acts, even though they frequently go to court. I wondered why this occured and what the laws really said regarding this. I also wondered how people distinguished between forgoing medical interventions and actually assisting in the suicide. As I approached the research, my main questions were regarding opposers. I really did not know all the problems that could occur. Research about this brought to light many things that are not discussed in the media, although this is a highly publicized subject. I found that it is very difficult to bring the debate to an end because all the arguments are really just matters of opinion. Opposers and protestors have good arguments. No one really knows what would happen, so they just use opinions to predict it. Because of all the media attention, I will try not to discuss the many things that are already known. I found myself intrigued at what I didn't know, and found my views profoundly affected. After reading current articles about what was going on legally and about cases, reviewing the history of this topic, and reading books showing the two opposing viewpoints, I have made my conclusions. I will show how people are currently handling this and how they are being viewed. I will discuss the main arguments on both sides. Finally, I will show what I concluded from this and how my views have been altered by information that I did not know before. I will begin by explaining how the terms are defined. Euthanasia is taken from Greek roots and means â€Å"good death. â€Å"3 Active euthanasia is a direct and deliberate intervention to kill the patient. It is â€Å"intended to end the life of the competent, terminally ill patient who makes a fully voluntary and persistent request for aid in dying. â€Å"8 Voluntary euthanasia is when the patient requests the action, and it is involuntary if the patient is not mentally competent enough to make the right choice. Passive euthanasia is witholding treatment from a patient. A physician assisted suicide is when the patient does the actual act, but the physician provides either enough information or the means to do it. 8 One source defines it as a â€Å"desperate measure, justified only in exceptional cases where every effort has first been made to care for a dying person by other means. â€Å"4 The terms euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide are usually used for the same thing and are not usually distinguished from one another. Usually the means of suicide is lethal doses of a poison such as pills, an injection, or gas. Motive causes euthanasia to be distinguished from murder, because its intent is merciful and is done out of kindness. The physician's intentions can make considerable difference in regard to how their act will be classified. The most common reason for a patient to want this aid is because of a terminal illness. Unbearable suffering has caused the person to become intolerant of the physical and/or emotional pain. The other reason is a physical handicap that is debilitating and the patient would rather die than live with it. Most people are able to cope with this, but in some cases it is impossible for the patient to do so. In ancient times, euthanasia was encountered often. However, suicide was condemned. During the sixteenth century, some people began to see it as more of a personal choice. It eventually became decriminalized, but assisted suicide and euthanasia are still crimes in most countries. 3 The introduction of powerful analgesics caused a rise in the interest in the â€Å"right to die† movement. It was advocated in the late 1800's, and has been a topic for debate since the early 1900's. Doctors have been helping patients die for centuries. Some cultures today have people that will stop eating and wait to die when they become seriously ill. 13 The â€Å"right to die movement† is encouraged by several factors. Modern technology has come along so as to extend human life. The fear of the dying process is of great concern to some people, especially when it accompanies physical and psychological suffering. Patients are becoming more in charge of their own fate and have more of a voice. Finally, there is concerns about the high health care costs. They cost more than 60 billion annually, and 1/3 of Medicaid payments go to patients in their last year of life. 13 Medicine's main goal has always been the preservation of life. Now, this is being challenged in an attempt to change it. The two sides of the issue are being debated. On one side are the people who think it is not a physicians place to kill a patient, because he/she should only help, not harm. The opposition thinks that suffering is the real harm. The debate comes at the point of the onset of the terminal illness, when it will be time to decide on the means. This is sometimes called the â€Å"Kevorkian moment. â€Å"2 Proponents give examples of people who could be helped, while opponents give counterexamples of people who may be harmed. There are many moral and legal considerations. The support for a physician's participation is increasing. According to opinion polls, about 60% of people in the U. S. are supporters. About 15% of physicians practice it when it is justified. 7 It is actually impossible to know for sure how much takes place because incidents are usually kept secret to avoid prosecution. Most people who have reported that they would consider it give reasons such as that they would not want to be a burden, would not want to live in pain, or would not want to depend on machines or others. The main argument for the support of euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide is that people should have the right to control their life and death, and should be able to end their lives when they wish if they are suffering needlessly. It is argued that it is a private choice and society has no right to be concerned. They usually portray it as a case of individual liberty. One source states that â€Å"euthanasia, if legalized, would be the ultimate civil liberty, since it would secure the freedom to determine and to control our own death. â€Å"8 Physicians must then decide if they are willing to take part in either directly killing the patient or by assisting the patient in suicide. The physician should follow the demands of the patient, even if it means killing them, because that would respect their wishes and the rights of the patient. Physicians treat patients with the purpose of restoring health. If the patient can't be restored to a reasonable level of living, it shouldn't be wrong to discontinue it. Euthanasia supporters often try to get sympathy by relating stories to make one feel like suicide is the only option in their case. The media has sparked a lot of interest, and continues to show stories like this. Simi Linton, psychologist, says, â€Å"I'm disturbed at how the media treats it, as: here are these poor folks; let's help them end their lives† (qtd. in 1). It makes it seem as if would be inhumane to deny anyone this option. Basically, it is the quality of life that is the main concern of the patient. They may feel that life is not worth living in their state. It would not be humane to insist that every means be taken to keep someone alive. A physician's main concern is to relieve suffering, so sometimes there is only one way to achieve that goal. At the time that efforts are no longer doing any good, the main concern is to make the patient comfortable and alleviate symptoms such as pain. 6 Drugs do not always get rid of all the pain, especially when it is excruciating. Sometimes a patient will be drugged into unconciousness with severe pain that cannot be controlled. 9 This does not seem like effective pain management to me. I don't believe people will be satisfied living in such a state as that. They would want to be put out of their misery. Legalization would cause many changes. It would give rights to the person who does it, rather than the person who dies. It is about the right to kill, rather than the right to die. 9 Physicians would need to be trained in more areas regarding this, such as information about medications and dosage, and about the mentality of the patient. They will need to gain expertise in understanding patients' motivations for requesting it, assessing their mental status, diagnosing and treating depression. The medical profession is developing greater expertise in managing terminal illness but would need to develop similar expertise in responding to requests for physician-assisted suicide. The debates over assisted suicide have forced clinicians to be more aware of what can be done to relieve suffering. Doctors are improving pallitive care and their own behavior. Patients are becoming more aware of their options. The problems associated with legalizing assisted suicide are usually not talked about when the proponents make their argument. The discussion of the potential for abuse, the ways it could be prevented or better helped are put on a backburner. The main argument against legaliziation is that human life is sacred, and it is not a human right to take it away. Some say that there is no need for suicide, because health care should resolve all problems and pain management has come a long way. Most people who commit suicide suffer from depression, so it is often debated whether this could be the reason for someone wanting assisted suicide. Often, when their depression is treated, the patient responds well, and would like to live. A regular physician cannot make the determination of whether a patient is suffering from depression. This is something that is difficult to diagnose in terminally ill patients. Just because a patient requests suicide, doesn't mean this will be an appropriate solution. Sometimes, a patient may even request suicide, but when the time draws near, they change their mind because it did not seem so imminent before. The will to request the suicide must be voluntary, but this decision is left up to the physician. How can a physician judge whether it is voluntary or not? It is also difficult to determine what terminal is. When people say that it should be reserved for people who are terminally ill, they cannot define it. It is used to mean someone whose death will occur in a relatively short time. Some people may say that if they will die in 6 months it is considered terminal, but it is difficult to determine exactly how long someone has to live. They may live much longer than that. A person could also be terminal who is in a vegitative state, but will live for years in that state with continued medicine. People cannot reach an agreement on what the definition of terminal would be, some even say old age is terminal. Marianne Smith, Program Development Director of the Death with Dying National Center defines it as â€Å"an illness in which there is no chance of recovery and that death is imminent. â€Å"15 Activists of euthanasia use the demonstration that suicide is the only means to control unbearable pain. Most pain is supposed to be able to be eliminated, or greatly reduced. Many people do not get enough pain control. 6 One reason is the underknowlege many physicians have about this, and that they are afraid the patient will become addicted. Also, too much pain medication can cause symptoms that may be worse than the disease was itself. One source says that â€Å"patients and physicians alike may be unaware of the options available in the medical system, including advances in pain control that could help patients but are not routinely provided. â€Å"3 There may be no solution to these problems, but some things can be done. Better health care education, more access to health care, and informing patients of their rights. 6 Everyone has the right to pain relief. Patients should get adequate health care, and not killed. Physicians argue that if good care of the dying is being provided, then a request for suicide would be rare. 4 Some patients may want to consider suicide, but are incapable of administering medicine. Some people may also lose their mental capabilities, and will be unable to request it. It is difficult to assess fairness in cases like these. Some people use a form of advance directive and make their request before deterioration occurs. It is hard to extend the same rights to all patients without causing abuse. If someone is unable to communicate their request, it would be frightening for someone to make that decision for them and to say that their life is not worth living, so we must kill them. There is great potential for abuse if it were to be legalized. Depressed people, elderly, and very frightened people would be greatly affected. People may feel pressured into giving up. Elderly are especially vulnerable to this. Now that there are more people living longer, this problem will increase. They may tend to feel they are a burden on their families, or are selfishly consuming resources. If a physician advocates it, they also may be swayed. People may also feel distrustful of the physician's advice. This may cause a hardship in getting appropriate care. 10 Legalization will only encourage more people to take part in it. It does not seem as if we would be ready for this to occur, because we are only just beginning to explore some realms of the medical world. It took a long time to figure out about adequate care for many patients and when is the right time to withdraw life support, so it would not seem that we would be ready for this step. The â€Å"slippery slope† argument is used by opponents, saying that legalization will lead to involuntary euthanasia. My own opinion is that if assisted suicide were legalized, we may not be as inclined to advance medical progress and knowlege. It would seem easier to just put the patient out of his/her misery. They may not use their experience to increase what we know about medicine and learn how to help the illness, or better cope with it. Proponents have said that euthanasia should be considered â€Å"medical treatment. † If this is so, there could be great potential for abuse. Then it may be more likely to be administered to people who cannot make the request. Some decisions that have gone to court say that assisted suicide is a constitutional right and that someone else can make the decision for the patient. If direct killing can be legalized by someone else, someone who is not competent could be euthanized without ever expressing that wish. It seems to be inevitable that patient are going to be killed without permission if legalization occurs, even with rules about consent. The main argument of how abuse of the practice could occur is called the â€Å"slippery slope argument. † It says that â€Å"even if particular acts of killing are sometimes morally justified with particularly pain-ridden patients, sanctioning practices of killing would run serious social risks of abuse, misuse and neglect. 3 The bad consequences of legalization would occur over time as this practice became more used. Another potential form of abuse lies in the fact that it would be cheaper to euthanize a patient than to continue medical treatment. It is thought that it could become a means of health care cost containment. Some of the main supporters of euthanasia are people concerned about lowering health care costs. 6 Religion has caused many people to debate it. Most churches are adamantly opposed to the idea of suicide. However, some Christians believe that God would not want them to suffer. 9 Although most religions and churches disagree with intentionally killing a patient, many people who hold this stand will allow the withdrawal of life support. It is believed that there is a difference between killing and letting die. Someone who is against euthanasia may agree with letting someone die who is being kept alive solely by life support that is not really helping them. 3 People feel that the intent in these cases is different. The more accepted approach does not involve killing. One interpretation of the difference shows that the intent is different because actively killing is aiming at death, and withdrawing support simply accepts that we are limited to help the dying and cannot reverse the process. 8 However, some peole believe that since death is the outcome no matter what, there is no moral difference between them. Another matter of intent distiction regards what is called the â€Å"double effect. † A physician will administer a pain medication to relieve pain, but knows that it may cause death. The patient would be in pain without it, but it may cause death if it is administered. It is usually believed to be moral if the doctor's intent is to relieve the suffering, and not to cause death. It is allowed if the death is foreseen but not intended, because it is the intent that makes it wrong. Although suicide is no longer a crime, giving assistance in it is, everywhere except for Switzerland, Germany, Norway, and Uraguay. In Australia, a law was passed that allows terminally ill patients to ask for assistance by injection or taking drugs themselves. 7 There is a debate about it because Parliament wants to overturn the statute, which is the world's only voluntary euthanasia statute. In the Netherlands, it is actually a crime, but it has been ruled that physicians may assist in death under certain conditions. Some of these are that the patient must be ruled competent, and two doctors must conclude that the patient has less than 6 months to live. 8 The United States has used them as an example to see what would happen if it were to occur here. They are having problems with it, mainly with abuse. The physicians there have reported that the main reasons people request it are â€Å"low quality of life, the relatives, inability to cope, and no prospect for improvement. Some sources show that people are requesting it for physical symptoms that it is almost ridiculou that they would go to such an extreme measure for. I think that the potential for abuse here may be great, because it is getting out of hand over there. People are becoming afraid to go to hospitals because euthanasia is becoming so commonplace. It now accounts for 15% of deaths. 1000 unconsenting deaths occur each year. 1. In 1994, the state of Oregon passed a ballot that gives limited physician-assisted suicide legality. This makes it the first in the nation to do so. A doctor must determine the patient has less than six months to live. A second doctor must decide that they are mentally competent and not suffering from depression. The patient must request it in writing with two witnesses, and then 48 hours before the doctor delivers the prescription the request must be repeated orally. 1 It must be a voluntary act. However, those jugements are left to the physician. So far, it has never been put into action. Other states are considering similar legislation, such as California which has proposed a law that is similar to the guidelines that the Dutch have adopted. Lawsuits in Washington State and New York were ruled by the 9th and 2nd U. S. Circuit Courts of Appeals that laws prohibiting physician-assisted suicide are unconstitutional. The legal fate will be determined by the Supreme Court. In 1990, the decision of Cruzan v. Missouri Department of Health resulted in people having the right to avoid unwanted medical treatment, including food and water. 5 It recognized the right to terminate unwanted medical treatment even when death would be the result. 14 People often use the Constitution as a basis for argument. The 14th amendment prohibits the state from depriving â€Å"any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law. † So to deny a dying patient medical assistance when requested is to â€Å"threaten this patient's request for help is judged denial of constitutionally protected due process. â€Å"4 As the courts were in session to hear a case about whether terminally ill people have a constitutional right to physician assisted suicide, demonstrators sang and picketed outside a Supreme Court building. The emotions of the rights issue has been compared to that of abortion. Both of these issues dig into whether we have the right to choose such personal issues. People can feel very strongly about the issues of mercy killing, whether they oppose or support it. The lack of laws cause people to avoid prosecution for assisting in a suicide. Kevorkian has escaped prosecution because there is not a state law prohibiting it, according to a Michigan judge. 9 People are afraid that activities such as his would become widespread if assisted suicide were legalized. His actions have been opposed not because of the assistance, but because he had no real relationship with his patients and had not given them any kind of clinical evaluation. Many were also not terminally ill. 3 It seems to show what is lacking in the medical sysytem, or what could become of it. Every case of assisted suicide is not convicted or prosecuted, even in states that make it illegal. However, the fact that there are many landmark â€Å"right to die† cases, shows that the law is commited to the prohibition. However, the procedures are not described as killing. If this were the case, the act would have to be justified similar to killing someone out of self defense. 4 It is hard to define the conditions that there must be in order to make it legal, because there is so much that we do not know. For euthanasia to be ethical, there must be certain guidelines. The person must be a mature adult, and has been shown to be mentally competent and willing to make the decision. Some medical help will have already been given, and it should seem that the fight is hopeless. 9 Many organizations have beliefs on this and they try to educate the public on euthanasia and what their views are. I contacted Marianne Smith, the Program Development Director of the Death with Dignity National Center. 15 She explained to me in e-mail how the organization feels about euthanasia and what they do to educate the public about it. The organization is working toward better health care for paients. She feels that assisted suicide should be legal, but that â€Å"physician-assisted dying should be the response of last resort,† and â€Å"when all other options fail to relieve unbearable suffering, when the patient is acting on his or her own initiative, is not clinically depressed, and is capable of administering the medication personally. The people who could be elgible are â€Å"only terminally ill, competent adults with decisionmanking capacity. † I also asked whether euthanasia could be avoided with adequate pain medicine. Her response was that â€Å"Physicians, medical associations and hospices all have stated that not all pain can be controlled. † Their view, which is one I encountered a lot, is that the medical professionals have not been trained adequately in pain management. Regarding the issues of potential â€Å"slippery slope† abuse, she says that physician's aid in dying is more common than people realize, and legalization would just make it happen openly, instead of secretly. However, the state regulation should provide strict guidelines and penalties for violations. I think that it is hard to make sure that the decisions are correct, so it should be carefully thought out. We are dealing with a very serious issue, which is death. It should not be an easy decision to make or to carry out. Becaue death is the consequence, the decision to kill oneself, and carrying it out should be very difficult and carefully thought out. This would help ensure that people have thought about it enough and know that this is the best decision. I don't know how a solution can be thought of to deal with the debate, but things such as more health care education and informing patients of their rights should be a consideration. I hope that if legalization ever were to take place, that they would carefully restrict who qualified for euthanasia. After all my research, most of my questions have been answered. It is difficult to come to a conclusion because there is no right or wrong answer. I don't know how anyone can determine what should be done. Who can put a price on life and say who has the right to die? The basic choice is whether to let doctors help people die, and if so, how? I have found many great arguments either opposing or protesting this issue, which has led me to my final conclusions. When I began this paper, I dived into it thinking that I was going to condone the idea of assisted suicide. I knew I could convince someone that it should be the moral and legal thing to do. I could not imagine a life without the ultimate choice or having to endure great suffering. I was going to defend this side, but also show the opposing side. Once I got into the research, I found many facts that I had not known before about why it has not yet been legalized. Many questions and opinions showed me that there were many things I had not even bothered to think about before. What a surprise to me that I could begin a project as a supporter, and then turn around my views. I now see where the opposers are coming from. There are just too many problems and considerations to think about before this could ever happen, and there are alternate solutions. I cannot say that this has given me a complete turn in the opposite direction, but I am definitely leaning toward the opposing side except in extreme circumstances when nothing could ever help the patient.